Introduction: What is Climate Justice?

A Brief Introduction to COP and Its Role in Climate Negotiations

The Conference of the Parties (COP) serves as the supreme decision-making body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Established in 1995, it provides a forum for 197 countries, known as "Parties," to negotiate and agree on collective measures to mitigate climate change, adapt to its effects, and provide the necessary financial and technological support to vulnerable nations. Over the years, COP has evolved from a mere platform for discussion to a critical venue where global climate policies are formulated, shaping the future of environmental governance.

Each COP meeting brings together heads of state, policymakers, scientists, environmental advocates, and non-governmental organizations to deliberate on pressing climate issues, such as emission reductions, climate finance, and technology transfer. Notably, major milestones like the Kyoto Protocol (1997), which introduced legally binding emission reduction targets for developed countries, and the Paris Agreement (2015), which established a global framework to limit global warming to well below 2°C, were outcomes of COP negotiations. These agreements illustrate the increasing urgency and complexity of climate negotiations.

The overarching goal of COP is to foster international collaboration in mitigating global warming, as well as to facilitate adaptation to its impacts. However, the negotiations often highlight the geopolitical tensions between different groups of nations, especially between the Global North and Global South. These tensions stem from the disproportionate historical responsibility for emissions and unequal economic capacities, leading to divergent interests during negotiations.

Defining Climate Justice: An Imperative for Ethical Climate Action

Climate justice is an emerging concept that frames climate change not only as an environmental issue but also as a matter of social, economic, and political inequity. At its core, climate justice recognizes that the effects of climate change are not borne equally across the globe. Instead, they disproportionately affect marginalized and vulnerable populations—those who have contributed least to the problem but are suffering its worst consequences. The principle of climate justice seeks to rectify these imbalances by emphasizing the need for fair treatment and equitable distribution of resources, responsibilities, and burdens in addressing climate change.

Scientifically, climate justice is rooted in the recognition of two key dynamics: historical responsibility and disproportionate vulnerability. Historical responsibility refers to the fact that industrialized nations, primarily in the Global North, are responsible for the majority of greenhouse gas emissions since the Industrial Revolution. These emissions have accumulated in the atmosphere, contributing significantly to the current climate crisis. On the other hand, developing countries in the Global South, which have historically contributed far less to global emissions, are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to their geographic location, economic dependency on climate-sensitive sectors (such as agriculture), and limited resources for adaptation.

Furthermore, climate justice advocates for the protection of human rights, particularly for those most affected by climate change, such as indigenous communities, small island nations, and low-income populations. These groups often face disproportionate impacts, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and food and water insecurity. In this context, climate justice aligns closely with the principles of equity and social justice, arguing that climate action must be informed by fairness and the protection of the most vulnerable.

The Global North vs. Global South Divide: A Geopolitical and Ethical Conflict in Climate Negotiations

The divide between the Global North and Global South is one of the most critical and contentious issues in international climate negotiations. This division is not merely geographic; it reflects the deep inequalities in economic development, technological capabilities, and contributions to climate change. The Global North typically refers to highly industrialized countries, such as the United States, Canada, European Union nations, and other developed economies, while the Global South includes developing and emerging economies, particularly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

  1. Historical Emissions and Responsibility: The Global North, particularly through its industrial and economic development, is responsible for the vast majority of carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions accumulated over the past two centuries. According to data from the Global Carbon Project, developed nations have contributed more than 75% of all historical carbon emissions. This legacy of emissions has significantly altered the climate system, leading to global warming, shifts in weather patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves.

Conversely, nations in the Global South have contributed far less to these historical emissions. For instance, Africa as a continent contributes less than 4% of current global emissions, yet it faces some of the most severe consequences of climate change, including desertification, biodiversity loss, and food security challenges. This imbalance in responsibility versus impact is a key driver of the demand for climate reparations—a form of financial and technological compensation from the Global North to help the Global south mitigate and adapt to climate change.

  1. Economic Development and Emissions: One of the central debates in climate negotiations is how to balance economic development with environmental sustainability. Developing nations argue that they should not be held to the same stringent emission reduction targets as developed countries, as they are still in the process of industrializing and lifting millions of people out of poverty. The Global South advocates for the concept of "common but differentiated responsibilities," which recognizes that while all countries must contribute to climate action, developed nations should bear a greater share of the burden due to their historical emissions and greater financial and technological resources.

This concept was embedded in the Paris Agreement under Article 2.2, which states that the agreement should reflect equity and the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances. However, disputes over how to operationalize this principle—particularly in terms of financial commitments from the Global North—have been a point of contention at successive COP meetings.

  1. Financial Support and Technology Transfer: For the Global South, access to financial resources and green technologies is crucial for achieving sustainable development while reducing carbon emissions. At COP15 in Copenhagen (2009), developed nations pledged to mobilize $100 billion per year by 2020 to support climate action in developing countries. However, as of 2024, this goal remains unmet, leading to frustration and distrust between the two groups of nations.

Additionally, the Global South has called for the transfer of green technologies—such as renewable energy solutions and climate-resilient agricultural practices—from developed to developing nations. However, intellectual property rights and concerns over economic competitiveness have slowed the process, further deepening the divide.

  1. Loss and Damage: A particularly contentious issue in recent COP negotiations is the question of "loss and damage"—a concept that refers to the irreversible effects of climate change that cannot be mitigated or adapted to, such as loss of biodiversity, displacement of communities, and destruction of cultural heritage. The Global South has consistently called for the establishment of a dedicated Loss and Damage Fund, through which developed nations would compensate vulnerable countries for these irreparable losses. This demand was partly addressed at COP26, but the level of financial commitment from the Global North remains insufficient.

Therefore, the divide between the Global North and Global South at COP negotiations highlights the deep-rooted inequalities in responsibility, vulnerability, and capability when it comes to addressing climate change. Climate justice provides a framework to address these disparities, emphasizing the need for fair and equitable solutions that protect the most vulnerable while holding the most responsible accountable for their actions. As the impacts of climate change intensify, the importance of bridging this divide becomes ever more critical for the future of global climate governance.

The Global North’s Historical Responsibility

Global North’s Contribution to Greenhouse Gas Emissions since the Industrial Revolution

The Global North, consisting predominantly of industrialized nations such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Germany, and other European Union members, has played a disproportionate role in the accumulation of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the Earth’s atmosphere. Since the onset of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, the industrial and economic development of these countries has been heavily dependent on the extensive burning of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and natural gas. This process, while fueling economic growth, also initiated the large-scale release of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and other greenhouse gases, which are the primary drivers of anthropogenic climate change.

Data from the Global Carbon Project illustrates that between 1750 and 2021, the Global North accounted for over 70% of cumulative CO₂ emissions. The United States alone is responsible for approximately 25% of the historical emissions, while the European Union contributes around 22%. This historical emission pattern has created a large atmospheric carbon stockpile, fundamentally altering the Earth’s climate system. As these nations industrialized and expanded their economies, they effectively "used up" much of the carbon budget, the remaining amount of carbon dioxide humanity can emit while staying within a safe global temperature threshold, typically defined as 1.5°C or 2°C of warming above pre-industrial levels.

This historical responsibility for emissions underpins many of the ethical and legal arguments within climate justice frameworks. Developing nations argue that the Global North bears the moral and financial responsibility to lead global mitigation efforts and support adaptation in the Global South, which contributed the least to historical emissions but suffers the most from its impacts.

How Wealth and Industrial Growth in the Global North Are Linked to Climate Change

The wealth and industrial growth of the Global North are inextricably linked to the use of fossil fuels. The Industrial Revolution introduced mechanization and powered factories that became the cornerstone of economic expansion. The First Industrial Revolution, fueled by coal, led to massive growth in industries such as textiles, steel, and transportation. This development model continued through the Second Industrial Revolution, with the advent of electricity, automobiles, and mass production, and into the 20th century, when oil became the dominant energy source.

While this growth provided immense benefits to human welfare, including increased life expectancy, improved healthcare, and higher standards of living, it also caused an unprecedented rise in greenhouse gas emissions. For example, in the 20th century, CO₂ emissions increased almost 12-fold, from approximately 2 billion tonnes per year in 1900 to over 36 billion tonnes per year by 2020. This period saw exponential increases in global energy demand, powered by the extraction and combustion of fossil fuels, predominantly by developed nations.

Furthermore, wealth accumulation in the Global North has led to consumer lifestyles that are highly carbon-intensive. High per capita energy consumption, reliance on personal vehicles, and energy-intensive industries such as manufacturing and construction are significant contributors to the carbon footprint of these nations. Industrialized countries established themselves as dominant global economic powers largely due to fossil-fuel-driven industrialization, which has left behind a legacy of atmospheric pollution.

The Current Carbon Footprint of Developed Nations

Today, the carbon footprint of developed nations remains disproportionately high compared to their developing counterparts. Although the Global North’s share of current annual emissions has declined as emerging economies like China and India have industrialized, the per capita emissions in countries like the United States, Canada, and Australia are still significantly higher than the global average.

According to 2022 data from the World Bank, the United States has a per capita CO₂ emission rate of approximately 15.5 tonnes per person per year, while the global average is about 4.8 tonnes. European Union nations have slightly lower per capita emissions, averaging around 6.8 tonnes, but still well above the global mean. The high energy demands of developed nations, coupled with continued dependence on fossil fuels for electricity generation, heating, and transportation, contribute to their ongoing significant carbon footprint.

These patterns highlight the need for drastic mitigation measures in the Global North, such as transitioning to renewable energy sources, improving energy efficiency, and adopting sustainable consumption patterns. Developed nations’ ability to decarbonize quickly is critical not only for achieving global climate targets but also for meeting their historical responsibility in the fight against climate change.

Therefore, the Global North's historical emissions and current carbon footprint underscore its central role in both causing and mitigating climate change. The wealth and industrial growth derived from fossil fuels have placed these nations in a position of responsibility for leading global efforts to address the climate crisis.

The Global South’s Vulnerability

How the Global South, Despite Contributing the Least to Emissions, Is Most Affected by Climate Change

The Global South, which encompasses developing nations across Africa, Latin America, South Asia, and parts of Southeast Asia, bears a disproportionately heavy burden of climate change impacts despite having contributed minimally to the problem. According to data from the Global Carbon Atlas, countries in the Global South collectively account for less than 20% of historical carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions, yet they face the most severe consequences of global warming. This discrepancy is a key issue in climate justice debates, as it reflects the unequal distribution of responsibility and vulnerability.

The primary sources of emissions in the Global South are often linked to subsistence activities, such as agriculture and biomass burning, rather than industrialization. Despite their low per capita emissions, countries in the Global South are on the frontlines of climate change impacts, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and disrupted ecosystems. This vulnerability is exacerbated by limited financial resources and weak institutional capacities, which hinder these nations' ability to adapt effectively to changing climate conditions.

Examples of Extreme Weather Events, Food, and Water Shortages Impacting Developing Countries

The effects of climate change are felt acutely in the Global South through increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. One prominent example is the recurrent flooding and cyclones that devastate low-lying regions such as Bangladesh, a country that contributes less than 0.4% to global CO₂ emissions yet experiences regular extreme climate events. In 2020, Cyclone Amphan caused widespread destruction in Bangladesh and India, displacing millions and inflicting billions of dollars in damages. Similarly, small island developing states (SIDS), like the Maldives and Tuvalu, face existential threats from rising sea levels, which erode coastlines and contaminate freshwater supplies with saltwater intrusion.

Food and water insecurity are also critical issues driven by climate change in the Global South. Agricultural systems, which are the backbone of many developing economies, are particularly vulnerable to shifting rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures. In East Africa, for example, prolonged droughts have caused crop failures and livestock deaths, threatening food security for millions. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), yields of staple crops such as maize, rice, and wheat could decline by up to 30% in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa by 2050, exacerbating hunger and poverty.

Water shortages are another manifestation of climate vulnerability. In regions like South Asia, climate change-induced glacier melting and altered monsoon patterns have led to both water scarcity and flooding. Cape Town's water crisis in 2018, where the city faced the prospect of running out of water entirely, serves as a stark reminder of how climate change is intensifying water stress in urban areas. These water crises not only threaten human health and livelihoods but also fuel conflicts over scarce resources, further destabilizing already fragile regions.

The Challenge of Balancing Economic Development with Climate Adaptation

One of the most pressing challenges for the Global South is the need to balance economic development with climate adaptation. Many of these nations are still in the process of industrializing and raising their populations out of poverty, relying heavily on sectors like agriculture, mining, and manufacturing. However, these economic activities are often highly vulnerable to climate change. Additionally, the resources required for climate adaptation—such as infrastructure improvements, disaster preparedness, and technology transfer—are often scarce, as these countries must prioritize immediate economic and social development needs.

For instance, countries in Africa are faced with the dual imperatives of providing electricity to growing populations while also transitioning to renewable energy to mitigate future climate impacts. The financial and technical constraints in achieving this balance are significant. In 2021, the International Energy Agency (IEA) reported that Africa accounted for only 3% of global energy-related CO₂ emissions, but its energy poverty is profound, with over 600 million people lacking access to electricity. The challenge lies in meeting development goals while ensuring that climate resilience and sustainability are integrated into national strategies.

Moreover, many nations in the Global South lack the financial capacity to fund large-scale adaptation projects. Adaptation measures, such as building sea walls to protect against rising seas or investing in drought-resistant crops, require substantial investment. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) estimates that adaptation costs in developing countries could reach $140 to $300 billion annually by 2030, far exceeding current levels of international climate finance. This financial shortfall hampers the ability of these countries to protect their populations from the most severe climate impacts, creating an urgent need for increased support from the Global North.

Therefore, the Global South’s vulnerability to climate change underscores the urgent need for international cooperation and equitable climate policies. Despite their minimal contributions to historical emissions, developing countries are bearing the brunt of climate-related disasters, food and water insecurity, and economic challenges. Balancing development and adaptation remains a central challenge, requiring significant financial and technological support from the Global North to ensure sustainable and resilient growth in the face of a changing climate.

Financial Disparities and Climate Aid

Exploring the Global South’s Demand for Climate Finance to Support Adaptation and Mitigation

The Global South’s demand for climate finance is central to addressing the imbalances in climate responsibility and vulnerability. Climate finance refers to financial resources aimed at helping developing countries mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change. Countries in the Global South argue that they face disproportionate climate risks while having the least financial capacity to address them, which underscores their need for external financial support.

The Global South requires climate finance for both adaptation (adjusting to the unavoidable impacts of climate change) and mitigation (efforts to reduce emissions). Adaptation efforts include building resilient infrastructure, protecting ecosystems, and improving disaster preparedness. Mitigation initiatives often focus on transitioning to renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing deforestation. However, developing countries face significant barriers in accessing the financial resources needed for these projects, which can total hundreds of billions of dollars annually.

In recognition of this need, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities (CBDR), which acknowledges that developed nations, as the largest historical polluters, should bear the greater burden of providing financial and technological assistance to developing nations. However, the availability and accessibility of this climate finance remain a contentious issue in global negotiations.

The Ongoing Debate Over the $100 Billion Climate Finance Commitment

A key point of contention in climate negotiations is the unmet commitment of developed countries to mobilize $100 billion per year by 2020 to support developing nations in climate action. This target was agreed upon at COP15 in Copenhagen (2009) and reaffirmed in the Paris Agreement. However, as of 2023, the Global North has failed to fully meet this pledge, with estimates from the OECD indicating that total climate finance reached only $83.3 billion in 2020, leaving a significant shortfall.

The ongoing debate centers on the definition of what constitutes climate finance, with developing nations arguing that much of the financial flows reported by developed countries include loans rather than grants, which adds to their debt burden. Additionally, the balance between funding for mitigation and adaptation remains skewed, with the majority of finance directed toward mitigation projects, despite the urgent need for adaptation in vulnerable regions. The failure to meet the $100 billion commitment undermines trust between the Global North and Global South and hampers progress in climate negotiations.

Discussion on the "Loss and Damage" Fund and Why It’s Important for the Global South

The Loss and Damage fund is a proposed mechanism aimed at addressing the irreversible impacts of climate change that cannot be mitigated or adapted to. These include the loss of lives, livelihoods, homes, and cultural heritage due to extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and other climate-induced disasters. For the Global South, the Loss and Damage fund is a matter of justice, as these countries often bear the brunt of climate impacts while contributing the least to the problem.

The establishment of a Loss and Damage mechanism was first recognized at COP19 in Warsaw (2013), but the lack of financial support from developed countries has hindered its implementation. At COP26 in Glasgow (2021), there was significant progress in acknowledging the need for such a fund, but no concrete financial commitments were made. For the Global South, the Loss and Damage fund is critical, as it represents compensation for the climate injustices they face and provides a means to recover from the catastrophic effects of climate change.

Section 4: The Path to Climate Justice

Highlighting the Need for Greater Solidarity and Cooperation Between the Global North and South

Achieving climate justice requires a shift towards greater solidarity and cooperation between the Global North and Global South. The historical emissions of the Global North have placed a disproportionate burden on developing nations, necessitating a unified global approach that prioritizes the needs of the most vulnerable. Solidarity involves recognizing the shared responsibility for global climate action while ensuring that developed nations take the lead in providing financial and technical support to those most affected by climate change.

Emphasizing the Importance of Technology Transfer and Capacity-Building Efforts

Technology transfer and capacity-building are critical components of achieving climate justice. Developing countries often lack access to the advanced technologies needed for climate mitigation and adaptation. Technologies such as renewable energy systems, climate-resilient agricultural practices, and early warning systems for natural disasters are essential for enabling the Global South to address climate challenges.

The Paris Agreement emphasizes the need for developed countries to support developing nations in accessing these technologies through financial assistance and collaborative efforts. However, barriers such as intellectual property rights, high costs, and limited infrastructure continue to hinder the widespread adoption of green technologies in the Global South. Capacity-building, which involves strengthening the technical and institutional capabilities of developing nations, is equally vital to ensure that they can implement and manage climate initiatives effectively.

Steps for Ensuring More Equitable Negotiations and Stronger Accountability at Future COP Meetings

To achieve equitable climate action, future COP meetings must focus on several key steps:

  1. Fulfilling Financial Commitments: Developed countries must meet and exceed the $100 billion climate finance pledge and ensure that these funds are accessible, transparent, and focused on both mitigation and adaptation. More emphasis should be placed on grants rather than loans, to avoid increasing the debt burden of developing nations.
  2. Establishing the Loss and Damage Fund: Future COP negotiations must prioritize the establishment of a fully operational Loss and Damage fund with clear financial commitments from the Global North. This fund should be designed to provide timely and effective support to nations facing irreversible climate impacts.
  3. Strengthening Technology Transfer Mechanisms: The transfer of climate-friendly technologies should be facilitated through international cooperation, with developed countries providing not only the technologies but also the financial and technical support needed for their implementation.
  4. Enhancing Accountability: A transparent and robust monitoring system should be established to ensure that financial and technological commitments are met. Regular reporting and independent audits can help hold countries accountable for their promises, fostering trust and cooperation in future negotiations.

Therefore, the path to climate justice requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the financial, technological, and political inequalities between the Global North and South. By fostering cooperation and ensuring accountability, the global community can work towards a more just and sustainable future.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, addressing the climate crisis requires acknowledging the historical responsibility of the Global North and the disproportionate impacts felt by the Global South. The unequal contributions to greenhouse gas emissions and the financial disparities in adaptation and mitigation efforts have created a critical divide in climate negotiations. Achieving climate justice demands robust global cooperation, where developed nations fulfill their financial commitments, support technology transfer, and establish mechanisms like the Loss and Damage fund to assist vulnerable countries. As future COP meetings unfold, there must be a collective call to action for more equitable and just climate policies, ensuring that the burden of climate change does not fall disproportionately on those least responsible for it, while fostering sustainable growth and resilience worldwide.

About the Authors

Qudrat Ullah is an MPhil student of Environmental Science at Government College University Faisalabad. He is dedicated and motivated individual with a passion for exploring the impact of human activities on the environment. He aims to contribute towards creating a sustainable and healthy environment for the present and future generations.

Ubaid Ullah, BS Hon’s in Physics, is an accomplished author.